Chapter 3:  Consciousness and the Two-Track Mind
The Brain and Consciousness
Dual Processing
Selective Attention

Forms of Consciousness
Consciousness, modern psychologists believe, is an awareness of ourselves and our environment.

Selective Attention
Our conscious awareness processes only a small part of all that we experience. 
At any given time, awareness is focused on a limited aspect of all that a person is capable of experiencing
Novel or new tasks require conscious attention

Cocktail Party effect-ability to attend to only one voice among many (own name different)
Selective attention and accidents:  

Inattentional Blindness
Inattentional blindness refers to the inability to see an object or a person in our midst. Simons & Chabris (1999) showed that half of the observers failed to see the gorilla-suited assistant in a ball passing game. 

Change Blindness
Change blindness is a form of inattentional blindness in which two-thirds of individuals giving directions failed to notice a change in the individual asking for directions. 

Sleep & Dreams
Biological Rhythms and Sleep
Circadian Rhythms occur on a 24-hour cycle and include sleep and wakefulness. Termed our “biological clock,” it can be altered by artificial light.

 “Biological clock”—biological changes that occur on a 24-hour cycle-- affect the sleep and waking cycle, fluctuations in blood pressure, pulse rate, body temperature, blood sugar level, cell growth and cortisol secretion 

Sleep-wake cycle controlled by an area within the hypothalamus
Release of melatonin influenced by a structure in area called the suprachiasmatic nucleus—the internal clock gives message to wake up or fall asleep.

Sensitive to changes in light. When daylight fades—SCN tells pineal gland to secrete melatonin.  With light, SCN tells PG to stop melatonin secretions so body awakens

Sleep Stages
Measuring sleep: About every 90 minutes, we pass through a cycle of five distinct sleep stages.
Awake but Relaxed
Sleep Stages 1-2
Sleep Stages 3-4
Stage 5: REM Sleep

REM sleep:  The paradox of sleep

Rapid eye movement (REM) sleep: Sleep occupying around 20 percent of an adult’s sleeping time.  Characterized by increased heart rate, blood pressure, and breathing rate; erections; eye movements; and the experience of dreaming

Rebound effect: An increase in REM sleep after one has been deprived of it

Why we sleep and Individual Differences in Sleep Drive

Sleep theories
Protects: Sleeping in the darkness when predators loomed about kept our ancestors out of harm’s way.
Helps in recoveryr:  helps restore and repair brain tissue.
Helps us Remember: Sleep restores and rebuilds our fading memories.
Slelep aids in creativity
Sleep may play a role in the growth process: During sleep, the pituitary gland releases growth hormone. Older people release less of this hormone and sleep less.

People differ in  individual sleep requirements ---some individuals need more and some less than the typical 8 hours per night
Twin studies suggest differences may be partially genetic. 
Newborns sleep twice as much as adults. First months of life REM sleep occupies more of sleep cycles

Sleep
Sleep patterns culturally influenced. People in modern industrialized nations get less sleep because of shift work and social diversions.
Lose sleep—higher risk accidents   

Sleep Deprivation
Average American getting under 7 hrs sleep/night.  

Chronic sleep debt alters metabolic and hormonal functioning in ways that mimic aging—

Effects of Sleep Deprivation:
Fatigue and subsequent death.
Impaired concentration.
Emotional irritability.
Depressed immune system.
Greater vulnerability.

Sleep Disorders
Insomnia: A persistent inability to fall asleep. Common, about ¼ of people in US
Short term—lasts a few nights, chronic—last more than a month
Can be related to underlying medical or psychiatric problems 

Narcolepsy: Overpowering urge to fall asleep that may occur while talking or standing up.  Fall Immediately in REM sleep

Sleep apnea: Failure to breathe when asleep. difficulty in breathing and sleeping simultaneously. Can be serious, potentially life threatening

These occur primarily in children, and in stage 4 (deep) sleep:
Night terrors: The sudden arousal from sleep with intense fear accompanied by physiological reactions (e.g., rapid heart rate, perspiration) which occur during Stage 4 sleep.

Sleepwalking:  A Stage 4 disorder which is usually harmless and unrecalled the next day.

Sleeptalking: A condition that runs in families, like sleepwalking.

Nightmares: Unusually frightening dreams.  
Common
Dreams
The link between REM sleep and dreaming has opened up a new era of dream research.
Must be important to humans; otherwise REM sleep would be shorter. 

What We Dream
Negative Emotional Content: 8 out of 10 dreams have negative emotional content.
Failure Dreams: People commonly dream about failure, being attacked, pursued, rejected, or struck with misfortune.
Sexual Dreams: Contrary to thinking, sexual dreams are sparse. Sexual dreams in men are 1 in 10; and in women 1 in 30.

People dream about others who are significant to them, especially if there is an ongoing conflict. Mundane or routine actions seldom occur--not brushing teeth or washing dishes in a dream.

Men and women dream about different things 

Freud Dream Interpretation

Universal set of symbols used by unconscious to disguise hidden content of dreams (latent).

Most symbols in dreams are sexual in meaning

Why We Dream
Wish Fulfillment: Sigmund Freud suggested that dreams provide a psychic safety valve to discharge unacceptable feelings.  Dreams represent unconscious wishes that a dreamer wants to fulfill.  Wishes too threatening if directly expressed

latent content of dreams:  the “disguised” meanings of dreams
manifest content of dreams: According to Freud, the overt story line of dreams.  Symbols

Information Processing: Dreams may help sift, sort, and fix a day’s experiences in our memories.

Physiological Function: Dreams provide the sleeping brain with periodic stimulation to develop and preserve neural pathways. 

Activation-Synthesis Theory: Suggests that the brain engages in a lot of random neural activity. Dreams make sense of this activity.

Cognitive Development: Some researchers argue that we dream as a part of brain maturation and cognitive development.
Hypnosis
A social interaction in which one person (the hypnotist) suggests to another (the subject) that certain perceptions, feelings, thoughts, or behaviors will spontaneously occur.

Frequently asked questions about hypnosis

Explaining the Hypnotized State
Social Influence Theory: Hypnotic subjects may simply be imaginative actors playing a social role.
Divided Consciousness Theory: Hypnosis is a special state of dissociated (divided) consciousness (Hilgard, 1986, 1992).

Drugs and Consciousness
Psychoactive Drug: A chemical substance that alters perceptions and mood (affects consciousness).
Dependence & Addiction
Continued use of a psychoactive drug produces tolerance. With repeated exposure to a drug, the drug’s effect lessens. Thus it takes greater quantities to get the desired effect.

Withdrawal & Dependence
Withdrawal: Upon stopping use of a drug (after addiction), users may experience the undesirable effects of withdrawal.

Dependence: Absence of a drug may lead to a feeling of physical pain, intense cravings (physical dependence), and negative emotions (psychological dependence).

Misconceptions About Addiction
Addictive drugs quickly corrupt.
Addiction cannot be overcome voluntarily.
Addiction is no different than repetitive pleasure-seeking behaviors.

Psychoactive drugs are divided into three groups.

Depressants
Depressants are drugs that reduce neural activity and slow body functions. They include:
1.	 Alcohol affects motor skills, judgment, and memory…and increases aggressiveness while reducing self awareness.

2.  Barbiturates: Drugs that depress the activity of the central nervous system, reducing anxiety but impairing memory and judgment. 

3.   Opiates: Opium and its derivatives (morphine and heroin) depress neural activity, temporarily lessening pain and anxiety. They are highly addictive.

Stimulants
Stimulants are drugs that excite neural activity and speed up body functions. Examples of stimulants are: 

Caffeine & Nicotine
Caffeine and nicotine increase heart and breathing rates and other autonomic functions to provide energy.

Cocaine induces immediate euphoria followed by a crash. Crack, a form of cocaine, can be smoked. Other forms of cocaine can be sniffed or injected.
Ecstasy
Ecstasy or Methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) is a stimulant and mild hallucinogen. It produces a euphoric high and can damage serotonin-producing neurons, which results in a permanent deflation of mood and impairment of memory.

Hallucinogens
Hallucinogens are psychedelic (mind-manifesting) drugs that distort perceptions and evoke sensory images in the absence of sensory input.

Influences on Drug Use

Influence for Drug Prevention and Treatment

Near-Death Experiences
After a close brush with death, many people report an experience of moving through a dark tunnel with a light at the end. Under the influence of hallucinogens, others report bright lights at the center of their field of vision.