-Reinforcement is a naturally occurring phenomena.
-We all experience it—it is what makes us perform many of our behaviors.
-Behavior analysts use it in a thoughtful and systematic manner to modify behavior.
-Relationship between two events—behavior and the consequences that follow it.
-Some is reinforcement only if it increases behavior or increases the probability of the behavior.
-While reinforcement is naturally occurring, what exists may not be strong enough for some students or other things may be more reinforcing for the student.
-When this is true the teacher looks for stronger reinforces to motivate students to perform.
-contingent presentation of a stimulus immediately following a response that increases the rate of that response or the probability of the response.
Key words:
-increases—the behavior improves
-presentation—intentional delivery
-contingent—only when the behavior occurs
A positive reinforcer is a consequential stimulus (SR) that:
•Nothing is a reinforcer until you have established that it increases behavior.
Factors which affect reinforcement value:
•Reinforcement is different for each student—what may reinforcing to one person may not be to another
•Reinforcement must be individualized.
•Reinforcement sampling
-student must receive reinforcement only after they have performed target behavior
-if.....then
-to be effective reinforcement must be delivered immediately
-must think about this in establishing reinforcement system
-student must develop an understanding of the relationship between behavior and consequence
-if not delivered immediately—may reinforce an undesired behavior in the mean time
-eventually will establish a delay after the behavior is consistently performed (schedule of reinforcement, thinning)
-have biological importance to the student
-these are natural, unlearned reinforcers
-foods, liquids, shelter, sex
-foods, liquids—most used
-primary reinforcers are only effective if person is in state of deprivation
-they are not effective if student is satiated (has received too much of the reinforcer)
To guard against satiation:
Sensory reinforcers—(primary)
-primary reinforcers should be temporary—don't want students dependent on them—they are not natural
-they have no biological importance
-Secondary reinforcers:
•Pairing
-some students have not learned to enjoy secondary reinforcers
-we must condition them
-pairing is combined use of primary and secondary reinforcers—while delivering sip of juice we say “good job”
-as we condition—secondary reinforcers will become as effective as primary reinforcers (at least that is our goal)—then we gradually withdraw primary reinforcer
•Tangible reinforcers are a type of secondary reinforcer which is concrete—token, star, point, sticker
•Activity reinforcers—also a type of secondary reinforcer
-Premack Principle—following a non-preferred activity with a preferred activity (low frequency behaviors followed by high frequency behaviors)
–Limitations of activities:
-access to high-preference activities cannot always be immediate
-they are all or nothing
•Generalized Conditioned Reinforcers
-reinforcing to most people
-they have little value in themselves but are exchangeable for something of value
-tokens, money, points
-not suspect to deprivation
-less susceptible to satiation
-permit reinforcement at any time
•Token Reinforcers
-good for use in school
-token reinforcers exchangeable for wide variety of primary or secondary reinforcers
Two components:
-must take precautions against counterfeiting
Important components of a token economy:
• ŽSocial Reinforcers
-category of secondary reinforcers
Types:
-Praise should be specific about the behaviors you are reinforcing.
-Praise must sound sincere.
• Contracting
-systemize the use of reinforcement
-placing contingency into written document
-result of reasonable negotiations
Contract should state:
-contract payoff should be immediate
-call for and reward small approximations—progressive steps to target behavior
-reward accomplishments rather than performance
-should be fair—weight of reinforcement relative to behavior required
-should be positive
-patterns of timing for delivering reinforcement
-dense ratio of reinforcement- a lot of reinforcement relative to performance—high rate of response
-useful when learning new behaviors (acquisition)
-useful when target behavior is at very low frequency
Problems—
-student get satiated
-expect reinforcement every time
-transfer reinforcement to no reinforcement—rapid loss of behavior
-reinforcement follows some but not all behaviors
-learn to delay gratification
-maintains behavior over longer periods
Types:
-number of times a target behavior occurs determines the timing of reinforcer delivery
•Fixed Ratio Schedule
-student reinforced after fixed number of correct responses
-increased rate over CRF because they know that not every response will result in reinforcement
-post-reinforcement pause—as schedule increases, stop responding for a period of time because they know reinforcement isn't soon
•Variable Ratio Schedule
-target behavior reinforced on the average of a specified number of correct responses
-maintain a moderate and consistent rate of responding because of the unpredictability when reinforcement is coming
-no post-reinforcement pause
•Fixed Interval
-reinforced performs behavior following elapse of specified amount of time
-first correct response that occurs after the time has passed is reinforced, after delivery of reinforcer, time cycle begins again
-post-reinforcement pause
-fixed-interval scallop
•Variable Interval
-intervals are of different length but average length is consistent
-Limited Hold—restricts the time the reinforcer is available following the interval—reinforcer is available for a limited amount of time
•Response Duration Schedules
-student is reinforced following completion of a specified number of minutes of appropriate behavior—for continuous behavior during the time
-if behavior is discontinued—timing starts again
-pause after reinforcement may be seen under FRD schedules
-Variable-Response-Duration Schedule (VRD)—continuous appropriate behavior is reinforced on the average of a specified time period
•Thinning
-eventually bring students' behavior under the control of more natural reinforcers
-reinforcement gradually becomes available less often or on greater amounts of behavior
-move from dense schedule to sparse schedule
-eventually under control of natural reinforcers
-Ratio Strain—schedule has been thinned too quickly
•Negative Reinforcement
-contingent removal of an aversive stimulus immediately following a response
-it increases behavior
-positive reinforcement—stimulus presented (positive)
-negative reinforcement—stimulus removed (aversive)
-student performs behavior to escape (terminate) aversive stimulus
-also works when student avoids aversive stimulus
-works for both teacher and student
-what is aversive to a student is individual—just like what is reinforcing
Is disruptive behavior negatively reinforced?
-Does behavior result in termination or postponement of teacher requests, instructional demands, activities, materials?
-Is the student not competent?
-Does problem behavior occur more frequently under specific variables?
Difference between positive and negative reinforcement:
-sequence of events and existing environmental circumstances
Purposes of structured reinforcement:
-manage behavior
-some students need to see clearer connections between behavior and consequences—cause and effect
-teach students to value more general and natural pool of reinforcers