DRAFT
APPLIED SOCIAL SCIENCE AND THE GENERAL TREATMENT STRATEGY             Do not 
cite or quote
W.A. Harris                                  without permission.


Introduction

	This paper proposes that the planning of social interventions could be 
facilitated by use of a generalized schema, known as the General Treatment 
Strategy (Talley 1975). The idea of a general treatment strategy is related 
to the idea of a formal theory.  Formal theory, which drives theoretical 
science, is a universal, falsifiable statement which is used in an 
objective, value-free manner to enter into the explanation of empirical 
occurrences.  Theoretical science accumulates knowledge by continually 
asking the question, "Why does this occurrence take place?"  Cumulative 
knowledge, the product of theoretical science, is shared by a research 
community seeking the limits of empirical venues covered by formal theories. 
  Analysis and rulemaking for the forms and procedures of theoretical 
science are addressed by the field, philosophy of science.

	Applied science employs the technologies and engineering used to put 
theoretical knowledge to practical use.  Applied science is the face of the 
scientific enterprise most visible to the general public who are necessary 
for the support of scientific research.  For most lay persons applied 
science is science, and the most interesting scientific question is "What is 
it good for?"

	The concept of values is relevant to applied science in the sense of 
ethical considerations, moreso than in the sense of objectivity.  The 
identification of problems begins with a value position; someone must make 
the decision that a given situation should be changed.  In bringing about 
change, however, the ethics of the method and the outcome must be 
considered.

	The venue addressed in applied science is usually confined to particular 
classes or particular instances of problems.  A solution appropriate for 
adults may not be appropriate for children, or methods for training workers 
may miss the mark in the training of volunteers.  Furthermore, much of the 
method and result of applied science is private or even privileged 
information, guarded by skilled practitioners or subject to rules
of practitioner/client relationships.

	Finally, there is no overarching philosophical field organizing the forms 
and procedures of applied science.  Aside from writings on organizational 
development, the codified works are, essentially, training manuals.  Granted 
that these writings address such important fields as engineering, medicine, 
and psychoanalysis, but they are still training manuals.  There is no known 
method to translate theoretical knowledge into applied knowledge.  There is 
no known set of rules for methods to be used in addressing situations that 
need to be changed.  There are many strategies for change in daily use and 
practitioners who swear by the use of these strategies, but there is no 
logical way to
account for why they work or why something else would not work equally as 
well.  For example, regarding most emotional disorders treated by 
counseling, the recovery rate is the same for those treated and for those 
left untreated regardless of the treatment method used.

	The foregoing assertions lead to a call for the construction of a 
philosophy of applied science, the foundation being a structure of 
statements analogous to the formal theory.  According to Talley (1975), that 
structure might be called the General Treatment
Strategy.

	The idea being propounded here is that applied science brings about change 
through the use of particular strategies of treatment for particular 
problematic situations.  To the extent that practitioners can specify the 
parameters of problems amenable to treatment by a particular strategy, the 
level of generality of that strategy becomes known.  Also, to the extent 
that practitioners are able to delineate the elements of a particular 
strategy, that strategy becomes replicable.  The result of constructing the 
General Treatment Strategy should be an improvement in the training of 
practitioners and in the services delivered to clients.

	A guiding assumption in this work is that formal theory and theoretical 
research constitute appropriate models for the codification of applied 
science.  A consideration of the elements of formal theory should guide the 
analysis of treatment strategies.  Also, the knowledge generated by 
theoretical research is a likely source of information in the design of 
treatment strategies.

Statement of the Problem

The design of a treatment strategy begins with a clear statement of the 
exact nature of a problem. The problem statement should detail and specify 
the aspect of a grossly labelled problem which is to be treated. The 
existence of social problems is fairly simple to recognize. Social problems 
make us uneasy, they bring about anxiety in the form of desire for a change 
in the social situation. In order to be effective, however, the problem 
solver needs to target the crux of the problem. In doing so, the 
intervention becomes more manageable and more predicting of success. As the 
practitioner crafts an increasingly detailed description of the problem, it 
enables the identification of specific research studies which provide 
information on the incidence of the problem.

Again, in identifying a problem needing change, it is necessary to be 
specific about the nature of the problem. One cannot assume that a term or 
label conveys the same meaning to all audiences. Thus, the term "learning 
disability" may connote dyslexia to one person
and hyperactivity to another. "Sexual dysfunction" may indicate impotence or 
premature ejaculation, vaginismus or anorgasmia. Let us consider an example 
of a closely crafted statement of a problem.

Example: abuse of children

o    "Abandonment of a child occurs when the child’s natural caretakers
     are for some reason unwilling or unable to care for the child, and have
     consequently abdicated this responsibility to an unwilling other 
person.
     Infants and children up to the age of five are often abandoned in 
institutional
     settings or other public places, or are left with a friend or relative. 
Older
     children are often perceived as runaways, though they may actually have 
been
     abandoned."

Example: alcoholism

o    "Some alcoholics become dependent on the social contacts and
     social situations associated with their episodes of abuse,
     as well as with the use of the alcohol itself. This linked
     dependency is made worse when drinking buddies reject social
     contact with one who is reforming their drinking habits. Or,
     the social situations frequented by the reforming alcoholic
     are places in which alcohol consumption is the norm and
     nonconsumption is seen as deviant."

There is a increased consciousness toward child abuse in human society.  
This is reflected in the increase in reporting of various types of incidents 
of abuse. Such reports are disseminated not only in the daily news, but also 
they have become the raw material of numerous talk shows and tabloid shows 
on television. Schoolchildren nowadays are instructed to be intolerant of 
abuse, and even to report abuse by parents to the authorities. Doctors have 
developed a heightened awareness of patterns of abuse observed in young 
patients. In the midst of normative change there is a perception that 
incidents of child abuse are on the increase in the present day, there is no 
way to tell if this perception results from increased sensitivity and 
increased reporting regarding the problem.

This change in society frequently results in reports of mistaken accusation. 
Thus, we have become aware of concepts such as “false memory.” Or, we hear 
of strife happening in families because of pure accidents or self-inflicted 
injuries occurring to children. The term, child abuse, has come to cover a 
multitude of behaviors, including neglect, corporal punishment, sexual 
assault, and abandonment. Each of the behaviors of child abuse requires a 
separate and unique treatment plan, according to the view propounded here.

One crucial feature of the proposed statement of a problem is that it 
focuses on a subset of the behaviors occurring in child abuse.  This is 
important because the problem labelled "child abuse" may have several 
aspects which may require specific analysis and must be treated by separate 
strategies.  For example, there are other types of child abuse as 
experienced by victims and perpetrators. Also, there are a set of problems 
which affect those who come into contact with abusers or their victims.

A carefully crafted statement of the problem can suggest some potentially 
useful instances of theoretical research to be consulted for insightful 
conceptual and empirical information.  The discarding of younger children in 
medical or social service institutions suggests the use of research on 
organizational structure or organizational culture. The ambiguity of whether 
an adolescent is a runaway or a throwaway requires qualitative insights to 
family dynamics and adolescent behavior.

The caution in referring to theoretical research in the social sciences is 
the fact that few social theories are well developed.  The use of concepts 
and findings from this literature requires a talent for estimation as much 
as a talent for locating references.  However, this is a general caveat; 
given that there is no codification for the applied side, it should be 
expected that any given problem must be triangulated with several lines of 
research.

Parenthetically, it should be noted that this type of analysis can lead to 
insights on problematic processes that may be in some way related to the 
focal problem.  For example, the observation that child abuse is under fresh 
attack in today's society applies
to other occurrences as well.  That is, today's society has also developed a 
posture of approbation toward the use of tobacco, alcohol, unsafe sexual 
behavior, fatty foods, and even fur coats!  It is not expected that a 
treatment for child abandonment would fit these other areas, but the 
analysis of the connections can prove useful for future insights.

Another aspect of the statement of the problem involves the social context 
of the problem to be addressed in the analysis. The statement advanced here 
mentions the abandoning caretaker as well as the child and the context into 
which the child is abandoned. Decisions must be made on the extent to which 
an intervening treatment involves each of the elements delineated in the 
problem statement.

Statement of the Solution

The solution defined by a treatment strategy is determined only in part by 
the statement of the problem.  It is necessary that the analysis of a proper 
solution touch upon the problem and issues beyond the problem.  It cannot be 
assumed that the solution can be found by simply identifying a situation 
opposite to that which constitutes the problem.

The statement of the solution must define a virtually ideal state of the 
situation in which the problem occurs, and that desired state must be 
practically feasible and morally acceptable.  This is a point in the 
construction of a strategy at which values, in terms
of moral and ethical issues, should reenter a scientific process of 
problemsolving.  In stating the problem and its solution it is absolutely 
essential that ethical issues be considered.  It may be necessary to create 
a role or procedure in the strategical process for the objective evaluation 
of moral and ethical issues.

There are any number of possible solutions to a social problem. For example, 
let us consider our particular statement of a problem in child abuse:

o    "Abandonment of a child occurs when the child’s natural caretakers
     are for some reason unwilling or unable to care for the child, and have
     consequently abdicated this responsibility to an unwilling other 
person.
     Infants and children up to the age of five are often abandoned in 
institutional
     settings or other public places, or are left with a friend or relative. 
Older
     children are often perceived as runaways, though they may actually have 
been
     abandoned."

Any of the following might be proposed as solutions for this stated problem:

o    Indentification by institutions of caretakers predisposed to 
abandonment of infants
      and the youngest children, and the provision of interpersonal and 
material supports to
      head off the possibility of abandonment;
o    Public information campaigns on alternatives to child abandonment;
o    Indentification by institutions of older children predisposed to being 
abandoned, and
      the provision of interpersonal and material supports to head off the 
possibility of
      abandonment.

The feasibility of any of these solutions or others must be considered in 
light of the availability of fiscal and human resources required to 
implement them. Institutional monitoring of families with younger children 
would focus on children who are born out of wedlock, or who are sick or 
deformed, and especially if these conditions are combined with economic 
hardship in the home. In the case of older children the focus would be on 
children reported to be incorrigibly delinquent. In either case a record of 
past abuse would be a warning sign.

The morality of any solution is determined by analysis of the effect of a 
solution on the client and the client's social world. It would be 
unacceptable if institutional monitoring resulted in de facto accusation of 
innocent parents, or if monitoring was the source of the parent’s first 
thoughts about abandonment.

The practitioner must heed the consequences of attaining the defined ideal 
state as it will unfold when the problem is treated.  The practitioner must 
consider the possibility that the ideal state defined by the solution may 
constitute a situation leading to the emergence of new and less acceptable 
problems.  Or, it may be that the new situation is acceptable but the 
process of treatment involves undesirable side effects. Some examples of 
such consequences are:

o    When Mencius' disciple stated that the process of
     socialization was analogous to carving a bowl from an
     unformed block of wood, Mencius replied, "In order to carve
     a bowl from an unformed block of wood, you must do violence
     to the tree.  Would you do violence to the individual in the
     process of socialization? If so, socialization will be
     thought to be a calamity."

o    The apocryphal quote of the Vietnam war was, "We had to
     destroy the village in order to save it."

o    Marriage partners have been known to address their marital
     problems by conceiving a baby.

o    With respect to the problem of alcohol consumption, Prohibition
      was implemented as a solution which had disastrous results.

In crafting the statement of a solution, certain considerations must come 
into play:

o    What are the foreseeable consequences of the defined
     solution or of the steps necessary to achieve it?
o    Are these consequences themselves problematic?
o    Are these consequences more or less problematic than the
     original problematic situation?

Finally, the statement of the solution simply describes a new state to be 
attained through treatment.  The solution does not specify how the desired 
state is to be attained, that element of the treatment strategy is stated in 
the Procedures.


The Procedures of Treatment

While the statements of the problem and solution are in the form of 
descriptions, the statement of the procedure is in the form of 
prescriptions.  It requires the statement of a set of instructions 
systematically directing the activities of the practitioner over the course 
of the treatment.  One of the unsolved philosophical issues about this set 
of statements is that they have no sense of truth or falsity. Therefore it 
is not possible to test the appropriateness of such statements.

The procedure is, of course, designed in light of the problem and its 
proposed solution.  There must be some correspondence between the procedures 
of treatment, the presenting situation and the desired endpoint.  Let us 
craft a rather farfetched procedure to
fit one of our examples of solutions to treat our stated problem of child 
abandonment.

This procedure involves some ideas about social environment and
the psychophysiology of thirst.  On the one hand, the
practitioner may decide that the mental state or disposition of
an individual is in part determined by the immediate social
environment (Schacter and Singer, op. cit.).  On the other hand,
the practitioner may assume that an alcohol abuser is accustomed
to consume relatively large amount of liquids during a period of
abuse.  If the client is presented with a social milieu similar
to the one in which abuse has taken place, and if the client is
persuaded to treat drinking behavior simply as a need for liquid
replenishment, it may be assumed that the client can enjoy the
form of alcohol indulgence without falling prey to the substance.

This treatment would be appropriate for a client whose major
complaint consists of a portion of our stated problem:

o    The social situations frequented by the reforming alcoholic
     are places in which alcohol consumption is the norm and
     nonconsumption is seen as deviant."

In addition to counseling therapy, the steps involved in this
treatment are:

1.   Ascertain the details of the client's drinking behavior.
     What type of alcohol is consumed?  What size glass is used?
     Is the social setting a bar?  ...a house party?  How is the
     client dressed for the drinking situation?  What kind of
     music is played?  Is there dancing?

2.   Organize a laboratory setting replicating a social situation
     that conforms to the essential features of the client's
     drinking world.  The difference between a bar and a rumpus
     room can be the difference between cocktail tables and
     sofas.  In the interest of economy it is best to treat
     several clients at once in the simulated laboratory setting.

3.   Convene groups of clients in their appropriate setting for a
     treatment session.  Be sure that the appropriate music and
     glassware are present.  Be sure that the clients are dressed
     in their "drinking attire."

4.   Offer two kinds of drinks: a) iced water, or b) non-
     alcoholic drinks that appear to be alcoholic (e.g.,
     Martinelli's sparkling cider).  There are cautions in
     the drinks offered: i) Many drinkers have already tried and
     rejected non-alcoholic drinks that appear to be alcoholic.
     ii) Weight gain may result from the new drinks.  The
     water option should be encouraged.  iii) Some so-called non-
     alcoholic drinks contain small amounts of alcohol; this is a
     crucial fact if total abstinence is part of the sought
     solution (cf. Hess).

This treatment has been reported to be used by some treatment
centers.  The only innovative aspect of the stated design is the
assumption that drinking behavior may be related to individual
patterns of thirst.


Parent Conceptual Schemas

A background of empirical observations and theoretical concepts
from theoretical research and theoretical orientations can
support the belief that a treatment strategy will result in the
desired solution.  In the social sciences applied work draws
information and inspiration from three sources: formal theories,
empirical findings, and theoretical orientations.  The role of
theoretical research and empirical observations is informational
and directly supportive.  The role of untested or unfalsifiable
theories is inspirational, providing a supply of concepts and
traditions grounded in the richness of social scientific
discourse.

The role of observation statements.  The goal of many
quantitative, theoretical researches in social science is the
explanation or specification of occurrences in the social world
which are disruptive to groups in society.  An observation
statement resulting from such research is, essentially, the
statement of a social problem.

The goal of many efforts in applied social science is the
amelioration of occurrences in the social world which are
disruptive to groups in society.  An observation statement
resulting from replicable research and describing a dysfunction
in society is the starting point for the design of a clinical
treatment strategy.  Essentially, the observation statement is
the critical point of convergence between empirical research and
applied work.

In order to overcome a problem in human affairs, some positive
change must take place in an existing situation.  Before a
desired change can be effected, the origin of the problem must be
clearly conceptualized.  In that the statement of the problem is
equivalent to an observation statement determinable through
research, there is available an avenue to reach an explanation
for the observation.  Such an explanation establishes the
antecedents of the observation.  Therefore, within the statements
explaining a problematic observation there is available
information regarding the genesis of the problem.

The observation statement or explanandum is determined by or
logically derived from the explanans, i.e. the statements of
scope and initial conditions and an abstract, universal knowledge
claim.  As long as the explanans does not change, the explanandum
is not expected to change.  On the other hand, if change were to
occur in the antecedents of an observation statement describing a
social problem, one would expect that change would likewise occur
in the resulting observation and the problem.  Essentially, an
explanans which explains a research finding contains the critical
elements which must be changed in order to bring about change in
a finding which is also constitutes the statement of a social
problem.

The role of theoretical orientations.  The social sciences are
replete with theoretical world views for analysis of social
systems and social behavior.  As the bases for theoretical
research, these theoretical entrenchments usually contend for
possession of the received view, but in applied social science
these conceptual traditions provide a smorgasbord of rich
concepts to add to the design of treatment strategies.  This is
particularly true because a given treatment strategy will,
typically, call upon a combination of informational and
inspirational sources to diagnose and solve a given problem.

A survey of theoretical orientations in reference to our stated
problem of alcohol abuse will demonstrate how these conceptual
structures are used.

--Exchange theory:  According to exchange theory or learning
theory, all behavior is controlled by the reinforcing or
punishing consequences associated with behavior.  The stimulus
and response relationships that drive behavior may be internal,
though they are usually external.  That is, the reinforcing event
which follows a behavior could be an internal event, ssuch as a
reduction of anxiety.  Or, the immediate stimulus that prompts
behavior couldalso be an internal event, such as the arousal of
angry feelings.

The model proposed here is of an input/output system.  That is,
various stimuli impinge upon the individual.  As a reuslt of his
or her learned associations, various behaviors are emitted.
These are either reinforced or punished, depending on the
immediate consequences of the behavior.  These consequences then
either strengthen the learned associations or weaken them,
depending on whether the consequences were positive  or negative
to the individual.

In light of this theory, alcoholism could be analyzed as a series
of discrete behaviors elicited by certain stimuli (such as
smoking a cigarette, greeting a friend at a party, or receiving a
reprimand from a supervisor).  The behaviors are reinforced by
certain events which follow the drinking (such as cooling of the
mouth and throat, social attention from being the life of the
party, or forgetting the reprimand).
Although not all of the examples of stimuli can immediately be
identified as elements of our statement of the problem, it is
possible to visualize them as aspects of the described situation.
The "social contact" who elicits drinking behavior could be a
friend or someone who arouses anxiety.  Drinking and the
occurrence of anxiety-provoking situations could become cyclical
events.  Parties are situations in which drinking is the norm,
and smoking often occurs in such settings.  As for smoking while
alone, for many persons aloneness is associated with loneliness,
an anxiety-provoking state.  The point is that it is likely that
unusual cycles of stimulus and reinforcement may be operating in
cases of alcoholism.

Analysis in light of this theory could suggest a treatment with
1) the identification and reduction of the eliciting stimuli, 2)
the weakening of the association between these stimuli and the
drinking behaviors, and 3) the neutralization or reversal of the
positive consequences which reinforce the behavior.


--The medical model: Nowadays it is popular to treat all
dysfunctional behavior as the result of organic imbalance.
Biochemical levels and viral damage have replaced mental states
and social disorganization as the guiding concepts for social
problems.  The problematic behavior, a function of the underlying
biological disorder, is expected to persist until the underlying
disorder is corrected.

In light of this theory, alcoholism would be seen simply as a
predictable result of a physical or biological property.  The
treatment could involve a drug threapy combined with constant
personal effort to overcome the organic dysfunction.

A primary feature of this approach is that the individual drinker
and the drinker's social contacts are absolved of any
responsibility in the creation or maintainence of the alcoholic
behavior.  The locus of the problem is seen to be a bodily
function that is not under conscious control.


--Communication theory: In communication theory, all behavior,
whether verbal or nonverbal, is seen as a communicative act
within a definable social system.  The significance of the
behavior is twofold: 1) it expresses some idea or content, and 2)
it implies a certain relation with others in the system.

The relations implied by discrete behaviors link the actors into
a social system.  The network of linking relations define the
actors, their attributes and positions in their social
environment.
The units of analysis extend from the interpersonal to the
systemic, including the couple, the family, or the denizens of
Cannery Row.  The focus of analysis can be typical communication:
"What are the rules which govern interaction?"  Or, the focus can
be extraordinary metacommunication: "What determines how and when
rules are changed?"

The rules of interaction are important because they regulate and
standardize the behaviors through which actors define and express
the "self."  Members of the system usually enforce the rule
rigidly and mercilessly.

In light of communication theory, alcoholism is a set of
behaviors enacted in relation to some social system.  The
significance of alcoholism is drinking behavior and the
relationship with others that is evoked with the behavior.  The
behavior and the relationship are guided by the rules of the
system.

Talley cites a classic example: The drinking of the husband
consistently pushed the wife into a nurturing, mothering posture
because the husband became totally dependent when he drank.  He
would drink in her presence until he was incapacitated and "needed
to be taken care of."

The therapist directed that the husband was to drink all he
wanted, but only if the wife was always one drink ahead of the
husband.  Since she was not accustomed to drinking, this strategy
essentially resulted in the wife being totally drunk when the
husband was barely getting his whistle wet.  The result, of
course, was to force him into caring for his wife, thereby
shattering the communicative significance of his drinking
behavior.  The intervention was designed to interrupt the
drinking behavior and allow a straightforward discussion of the
various expectations and hopes that existed in the relationship.


--Labelling theory: Social labelling theory distinguishes between
the behavior of an individual and the label placed on that
behavior by the culture.  We react to another's behavior based on
the way the behavior is defined by society, and not on the
behavior itself.

For example, there are behaviors which might be accepted from a
white male as being "assertive."  The very same behaviors might
be seen as "aggressive" or "threatening" if the individual was a
black male.  Or, the same behaviors might be considered "bitchy"
if the individual was a woman.  The reaction to the behavior is
not to the behavior itself, but to the varying cultural
definitions or labels of the behavior as it is enacted by members
of society with varying identities.

Much of the research done under the labelling orientation studies
the effect of having received a particular label.  Many social
labels control the access to specific social groups.  That is,
some friendship groups include all "rockers," while others
exclude "headbangers."  Some groups welcome only those who are
"cool people," while others seek out those who appear
"professional."  In our alcoholism example, the label "recovering
alcoholic" serves to exclude the client from some formerly
friendly groups.

Some social labels have far-reaching effects, resulting in
reactions from a broad spectrum of society.  Labels such as "sex-
offender," "ex-con," "drug addict," or even "Vietnam vet" can
have this effect.  At times the effects of these labelling
processes deny the individual access to mainstream society and
force the formation and maintainence of a deviant subculture.

The person being labelled derives the benefit or stigma of the
label depending on its valence.  Once defined as a "jock" or a
"nerd," that label activates associations in the mind of the
person being labelled.  Those associations may have crucial
effects on their self concept and behavior.

In light of labelling theory, being labelled as an "alcoholic"
can lead to ostracism when one's drinking buddies are reluctant
to accept the same label.

On the other hand, being labelled as an "alcoholic" can be
different from having a drinking problem.  It is conceivable that
one could not actually have a drinking problem until they were
labelled.  That is, someone might be inappropriately labelled as
an "alcoholic" and, because of the labelling process, become
excluded from certain social groups.  As a result, such an
individual might be forced into a culturally defined position
which fosters the development of a real drinking problem.

The labelling orientation identifies two problem for the client:
in the case of alcoholism, the client must 1) reduce drinking
behavor, and 2) eliminate the social stigma that accompanies the
label "alcoholic."  Thus, one target of this approach would be the
reeducation of society in its views on alcoholism, similar to the
campaigns against intolerance or bigotry.


Range of Application
//NOTE: cultural considerations//
Every general treatment strategy will have some range of
situations or persons for which it is most appropriate.  The
design of the treatment strategy may require the consideration of
other strategies having a range of application which seems
inappropriate at first glance.  In the organizational development
situation, for example, Harry Levinson uses a psychoanalytic
strategy in Organizational Diagnosis.  The idea is to be
sensitive to the range of application as an important element in
the design of a strategy.
The range has two components: 1) The parent theoretical
and empirical work which informs the strategy contains some
explicit or implicit statement of scope; this is the analog of
range in theoretical science.  The clue to an effective strategy
may lie in extending the scope conditions attendant to the
statement of the problem.  For example, in working with small
groups, the parent theory informing the strategy might apply only
to groups which are differentiated on a single dimension, such as
race.  If we wanted to use this strategy in groups which met in
face-to-face interaction, the dimensions of differentiation would
be uncontrolled and might include sex, age, height, and
education.  Justifying the reasoning of the theory for use in the
strategy would require some analysis of how it is informative
outside its original scope.

2) The range should specify the requirements of the practitioner-
client relationship.  In order for change to occur, it may be
necessary for certain ground rules to be agreed upon.  For
example, in Watzlawick's double bind approach to family
counseling, the client must be 1) reluctant to break up the
family, and 2) prevented from metacommunicating about the
problem.

In considering the range, criteria for inclusion or exclusion
should be developed.  These would constitute a set of measurement
rules providing guidelines to decide whether the problem of a
given person or situation fell within the range of the strategy.
If we consider the alcoholism example, these guidelines would
specify what was meant by the phrase, "dependent on social
contacts associated with episodes of abuse."  Someone who was
relocating to a new city would not be an appropriate client for a
strategy designed to treat resocialization in the face of hostile
drinking buddies.


Auxiliary Assumptions

At two points in the development of a strategy, auxiliary
assumptions are required.  1) It is necessary to make explicit
the reasoning about the fit between the parent conceptual sources
and the strategy.  2) The strategy exists as an abstract
statement until it is to applied to some concrete situation.
Because all situations contain their own idiosyncratic features,
it is necessary to bridge the gap between the abstract strategy
and the specific clinical intervention.  In the second instance
these assumptions are analogous to those in empirical research
which attest to the operationalization of theoretical concepts.

The assumptions linking the parent conceptual sources and the
strategy would remain constant for a given strategy.  However,
the assumptions linking the abstract statement of the strategy to
the specific intervention would change for every new situation
encountered.  Ideally, these auxiliary assumptions will have an
empirical basis and, thus, be testable through empirical methods.


Evaluation of Success or Failure

With respect to the statement of the solution, criteria for the
evaluation of results should be developed.  These would
constitute a set of measurement rules which would assess the
attainment of the solution, as well as the maintainence of moral
and ethical procedures and results.  For example, if our solution
for alcoholism were defined as "socially-assisted partial
abstinence," then we would need measurement guidelines for
ascertaining when the outcome included the proper "social
assistance" and "partial abstinence."  "Partial abstinence," for
example, could mean "one drink per week" or "drunk no more than
once a month."

With the existence of such a set of clearly stated guidelines,
the merits of the strategy become determinable.  That is, these
guidelines can clarify when the strategy has failed as opposed to
when the client has failed.