Link to glossary

 

 

 

English Structures

Sociolinguistics

Pages: 1, 2, 3, 4 Moodle TESL 551: Crowley   Houts-Smith
 

 

 

 

 

Language, Identity, and Styles

Language Change within Speech

We have seen that languages can have more than one mutually itelligible variety, and speakers may prefer one variety over another either because the preferred variety has been declared the standard variety or because a speaker views a variety as having prestige, even if the prestige is covert.

In part a speaker chooses a variety in order to display solidarity with a group, to identify with the group whose language behaviors are adopted. In other cases, the choice serves much more individual purposes, such as solidarity with an individual instead of a group, or the assertion of a personal style. A speaker can switch between varieties of a language for individual reasons tied to the particular speech exchange at hand, as well.

Code-Switching

Individuals who shift between varieties of a language (or even two different languages) in the same discourse are said to be code-switching. Code-switching requires high levels of ability in both varieties/languages and does not reflect partial learning of one of the two varieties/languages.

There are two types of Code-switching:

  • Metaphorical code-switching: Code-switching done to show solidarity.
  • Situational code-switching: Code-switching for clearly identifiable reasons (such as topic of discussion.)

Language Accommodation

Changing one’s language behavior to more closely resemble the behaviors of another individual is called language accommodation. Examples include:

  • Baby talk
  • Foreigner speak
Individuals sometimes refuse to make accommodations because it involves altering their language patterns to behaviors lower in prestige. For example, “Baby talk” will not impede the child’s language development by making it remain infantile longer. Rather, baby talk makes the adult speaker feel inferior through the accommodation to the “inferior” language variety.

Refusal to accommodate has everything to do with power, solidarity, and attitudes about language and the speakers of varieties of language and nothing to do with language itself.

Language Register

Another level of language choice that speakers make is in regard to the register of the language. The term register refers to different styles that are available to a speaker for encoding the same meaning. Quite frequently it has a narrower meaning: that of formality.

Register Visual

In general, on can think of register as the continuum of language ranging from formality to informality.

Formal language is described as high in register and informal language as low in register.

Activity: Name that Register

Mark the following greetings on a continuum from formal to informal. Use numbers 1-5 so that 5 shows the greeting that is highest in register, or formality, and 1 indicates the lowest in register or formality.

hey, you
hi
hello
good morning
morning

Not all of the above greetings would be appropriate in all situations. Normally, "hey, you" is not a greeting used to a superior (boss, professor, etc.); while "hi" would be more appropriate to a friend than the more formal "good morning."

Language Styles

Language register refers to one type of language style, but there are many other terms to capture other types of styles. Quite often, the formality issue is somewhat attached to some of these styles. Individuals choose a style to use, but groups decide which style a particular item of language belongs to. That is, since meaning in language is arbitrary, whether a particular word is labeled as high in formality, as taboo, or as slang depends on the agreement of the users of the language.

Jargon/Argot – language that is specific to a particular field of study or profession

  1. Linguistics - morphology, phonetics, syllabary
  2. University campus - registrar, student union, GPA
  3. Computer Technology - RAM, Hard Drive, WiFi, LAN, WAN

Slang – language that is informal and frequently transitory in nature. It is also frequently tied to a particular group.

1. Hit the books means study
2. Hit the hay means sleep
3. Right on means good, okay, I agree

Euphemism – language that is considered polite in nature and avoids a concept that is unpleasant or unacceptable in some way. A euphemism makes something sound nicer than it really is:

  1. Pass away means die
  2. Use the restroom means urinate
  3. Special/Exceptional means mentally retarded or handicapped

Dysphemism – language that is considered impolite and degrades a concept, making it unacceptable or unpleasant. A dysphemism makes something worse than it really is:

1.Touchy-feely means concerned with emotions
2. Loony bin for mental hospital

Taboo – language that is considered impolite or refers to a concept that is unpleasant or unacceptable in some way.
Taboo words are words that are not to be used. If not directly punished for using a taboo word, a speaker is certainly likely to be taught a euphemism to use instead of the taboo word!

1. Shit means defecate
2. Tits means breasts

Activity: George Carlin Comedy Routines on Language Styles

George Carlin makes fun of baseball by comparing its jargon to the jargon of football.

Baseball v. Football

Carlin does a routine on euphemisms, which he calls "soft language."

Euphemisms

If you're not too offended by taboo words, you may wish to view Carlin's famous monologue on the seven words deemed taboo by the broadcast industry (the Federal Communications Committee).

Seven Dirty Words

We have seen that language relates to the different speech communities that one belongs to, showing up as dialects, ethnolects, and sociolects any one of which may carry overt or covert prestige or be selected as the standard form. We have also seen that speakers can choose from several styles of language to suit the particular situation in which they find themselves.

Teaching Language

Be sure to teach your students a range of ways to say something, so they can fit into different social situations.

And make sure to teach them which ways fit into which situations.

Idiolects

Finally, we can talk about one particular person’s way of talking: an idiolect. Here's an example:

When we hear Susie Sorority saying “I have to study” in response to guy who has asked her out to a movie, and we know she always puts off guys she isn’t interested in, we know she means “don’t bother me.” In her idiolect, "I have to study" means "No, I"m not interested in dating you."

Likewise, if we hear Barbara Brain declare the same thing in the same situation, and we know she spends the majority of her time studying, then we know “I have to study” means she is going to spend time on homework, and doesn't necessarily mean that she doen't want to go on a date!

These are differences in idiolect: one individual’s personal style of using language.

Idiolects are what are studied in forensic linguistics to identify particular speakers on the phone or on tape and to identify particular authors of pieces of writing. It was Ted Kaczynski's idiolect that gave him away as the Unabomber to police. The identity fo the bomber was a secret until he wrote a manifesto, a long treatise or statement, to a newspaper that he demanded be published. When it was, his idiolect gave him away, and he was arrested. Idiolects are also useful to teachers in indentifying cheating and plagiarizing!

Idiolects are studied in textual analysis in literary studies, again to study authorship, and to answer questions such as "Did Shakespeare really write this play, or was it Christopher Marlowe?"

Sociolinguistics focuses on the relationship between language behavior and social situations, social roles, and social functions. It is especially concerned with identifying the variations among groups of users of the same language.
End of Lesson
Moodle - Kim Crowley's Course  Moodle - Linda Houts-Smith's Course
American Sign Language The sign language used by the deaf community in the United States.
Test of English for International Communication. A standardized exam for Educational Testing Services that is intended to determine the general capability of an NNSE to use English to conduct business. It is used by some businesses, predominantly in Asia, in hiring.
Test of English as a Foreign Language. A standardized exam from Educational Testing Services that is intended to determine the general capability of an NNSE to use English as the language of insruction .It is used as an admissions requirement by most US universities and colleges for international students.
Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages. A term that encompasses both TEFL and TESL. It is the name of the professional organization to which many teachers belong. TESOL the organization has many regional affiliates both in the US and abroad.
Teaching English as Second Language. Refers to the activity of teaching the English language as a tool necessary for some daily task like instruction, shopping, or interpersonal interactions.
Teaching English as a Foreign Language. Refers to the activity of teaching the English language as an intellectual, academic pursuit to non-native speakers of English.
Native Speaker of English. Refers to a person who acquired English in infancy and young childhood as a first language.
Native Speaker. Refers to a person whose relationship to a language is that it was encountered in infancy and young childhood as the dominant language of the environment.
Non-Native Speaker of English. Refers to a person who didn't acquire English as a first language, but came to it after another language was established.
Non-Native Speaker. Refers to a person whose relationship to a particular language is that he/she didn't encounter it while initially acquiring language, but came to it after another language was established.
Limited English Proficient. An adjectival phrase used to refer to the same students as ELL refers to. LEP is falling into disuse as it focuses attention on student deficiency rather than on the positive attribute of learning. Is being replaced by ELL.
Second Language. Refers to any language gained subsequent to the first or native language. It is acquired or learned secondarily to the native language. Doesn't refer to the ordinal numbering of languages, only to the relationship of a particular language to a persons native language.
First Language. Refers to the language that an individual encounters as an infant and young child; a persons native language.
English for Specific Purposes. Refers to the goal of learning English to use it for highly focused activity, such as for business or for aviation communication.
English as a Second Language Program. refers to a school program that is purposefully structured to provide instruction on the English language to NNSEs. An ESL program does not typically include instruction in any other subjects than English. An ESL program may be a component of a larger ELL program at a school.
English as a Second Language. Refers to the subject matter of the English language and the methodology for teaching the English language to non-native speakers. ESL makes no reference to the subjects other than English, but it is not methodology alone either, it refers to teaching the English language as content area. Typically, ESL refers to the study of English in a country where it is used for at least one daily task, such as instruction, interpersonal relations, or shopping.
English Langauge Learner Program. Refers to a school program that is purposly structured to provide instruction on the English language and instruction in other content areas to English Language Learners.
English Language Learner. Refers to students who are in the process of learning English, whether they are in ESL classes exclusively or a combination of ESL classes and other subject area classes.
English as a Foreign Langauge. Refers to the study of English as an intellectual, academic pursuit, not a a language whose use is necessary or desirable for daily life, although it may be used as a research tool. Typically, EFL is the study of English in a country where English is not a language of instruction or daily interactions, such as in Italy or in Saudi Arabia.
English for Academic Purposes. Refers to the goal of learning English to use it as the language of instruction for other subject areas.
Refers to a school program that is purposely structured so that students will use two languages on a daily basis.
Refers to the use of two languages in any capacity on a daily basis. A bilingual person uses two languages on a daily basis--for work and at home, perhaps, or for different subjects at school. Can also refer to the ability to use two languages, even if not used daily.