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English Structures
Semantics
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The Connections Between Words
As the word association game showed, we seem to store words together in our brains by their relationships to each other. These interconnections have given rise to the concept of a language web. We will start with our exploration of how meaning is attached to words by looking at the various kinds of relationships that exist between words in a language.
Activity: Seeing the Web of Words
An online thesaurus demonstrates this quite well. After going to the link, type a word into the text box at the top and click on "LOOK IT UP."
While it is extremely fascinating simply to watch the word web reassert itself as we click from one word to another, the web also contains notes for several kinds of relationships between the words. As already mentioned, some of these should be very familiar from earlier word study. The most familiar will likely be:
| Synonyms |
words with almost the same meaning |
| Antonyms |
words with opposite meanings |
| Hyponyms |
word for a member of a category |
| Homonyms |
words that sound the same |
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The Secret of -NYM |
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| Linguists have identified and named the kinds of semantic (meaning)
relationships between words, covering many more connection types than are learned in grade school: |
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Synonyms
Words with similar meanings in similar contexts
- Large - Big
- Cough - Hack
- Couch - Sofa
- Quick - Fast
Synonyms are never used in exactly the same way in a language. There is always some situation where one of the words is preferred over its synonym.
Activity: Synonyms
Can you think of any situations where an English speaker would say large but not big? Or one where a native speaker would say big but not large? How do the following examples compare?
This is my big brother.
This is my large brother.
Do the two sentences have the same meanings? Do the synonyms big and large have exactly the same meanings?
Back
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Antonyms
Words with opposite meanings in some respect |
Complementary Pairs are direct opposites; all or nothing opposites
- Alive - dead
- Asleep - awake
- Pregnant - not pregnant
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Gradable Pairs of antonyms
are those that are on opposite ends of a spectrum with many
points in between
- Hot-cold (warm-tepid-cool-chilly)
- Light-dark (bright-light-dim-dark)
- Old-young
- Tall-short
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Gradable Pair Antonyms always have a marked (unusual) and an unmarked (usual) member.
The unmarked member is the one we use in questions of degree
or in responses to such questions:
- How old are you? I’m 45 years old.
- How tall are you? I’m 5’2” tall.
It would sound unusual to say I'm 45 years young,
or I'm 5 feet 2 inches short. Even the question How young are you? is unusual, although it may be used as a joke or for effect.
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Relational Opposites show a symmetry of sorts
- Give – receive
- Borrow – lend
- Teacher – student
- Up - down
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Hyponyms
Words that refer to members of a larger category
Football is a hyponym of sports. The word pairs below first give the hyponym and then the word for the category it belongs to.
- Oak - tree
- Red - color
- Beagle - dog
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Homonyms or Homophones
Words that are different in meaning but are pronounced the same (spelling
is irrelevant)
- Tail – tale
- To – too – two
- Bat (animal) – bat (stick)
Back
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Heteronyms
Words that are spelled the same but pronounced differently
- Lead (guide) – lead (metal)
- Dove (bird) – Dove (past of dive)
- Bass (fish) - Bass (musical)
- Wind (breeze) - Wind (crank up)
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Homographs
Words that are spelled the same but have different meanings and may have different pronunciations.
Pronunciation is irrelevant.
- Dove (bird) – dove (past of dive)
- Pen (writing tool) – pen (cage)
- Lead (guide) – lead (the metal)
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Metonyms
Words that are associated with something and are used as a substitute
for that thing.
- Brass – meaning military officers
- Crown – meaning the government of a king/queen
Back
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Polysemous
Words
Words that have multiple meanings
that are related conceptually in some way
- Bear (tolerate) – bear (carry)
- Glare (shine intensely) – glare (stare intensely)
- Writer (person who composes words) – writer (person who earns
a living by composing words)
Polysemy may create lexical ambiguity and vagueness.
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Synecdoche
Words that are parts of a larger whole that stand for the whole
- Let’s count noses before we take off. Noses is synecdoche
for people.
- There are 200 head in that herd. head – cattle
- We need more hands. All hands on deck! hands –
people
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Word Families
Words that share the same root
We might also want to remind ourselves that words are related to each other when they share the same root or base: bear
– bearer
Teaching Language
So now that we have described various ways that words are related to each other in meaning, let us look at the application of all these relationships in teaching English.
The teaching of relationships between words is part of the teaching of vocabulary. Research shows that when teaching vocabulary, it helps to first introduce freqently occurring words first. This suggests that we should expect to teach the unmarked members of antonyms before teaching the unmarked member.
However, since words are interrelated, when it is time to introduce a word related to words studnets have already learned, it is helpful to teach the interrelationships: synonyms, antonyms, and hyponyms are especially useful relationships to use in intorducing and explaining new words.
Expect to directly teach synecdoche and metonymy usage, perhaps in conjunction with other figures of speech like similes and metaphors.
Teach clichés as if they are vocabulary. While we try to get native speakers to avoid these terms, the reason for doing so is because they are overused. Their overuse is exactly why non-native speakers need to know and understand them: they are used frequently in everyday conversation. Not teaching clichés leaves the NNS with a formal, standard vocabulary that will sound stilted and awkward in everyday conversation.
In addition to providing frequently used terms, teaching clichés also teaches ways of viewing the world that may actually be new to the
non-native speakers.
Teach advanced writers to avoid clichés in favor of innovative descriptions. |
| Part 3 |
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American Sign Language The sign language used by the deaf community in the United States.
Test of English for International Communication. A standardized exam for Educational Testing Services that is intended to determine the general capability of an NNSE to use English to conduct business. It is used by some businesses, predominantly in Asia, in hiring.
Test of English as a Foreign Language. A standardized exam from Educational Testing Services that is intended to determine the general capability of an NNSE to use English as the language of insruction .It is used as an admissions requirement by most US universities and colleges for international students.
Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages. A term that encompasses both TEFL and TESL. It is the name of the professional organization to which many teachers belong. TESOL the organization has many regional affiliates both in the US and abroad.
Teaching English as Second Language. Refers to the activity of teaching the English language as a tool necessary for some daily task like instruction, shopping, or interpersonal interactions.
Teaching English as a Foreign Language. Refers to the activity of teaching the English language as an intellectual, academic pursuit to non-native speakers of English.
Native Speaker of English. Refers to a person who acquired English in infancy and young childhood as a first language.
Native Speaker. Refers to a person whose relationship to a language is that it was encountered in infancy and young childhood as the dominant language of the environment.
Non-Native Speaker of English. Refers to a person who didn't acquire English as a first language, but came to it after another language was established.
Non-Native Speaker. Refers to a person whose relationship to a particular language is that he/she didn't encounter it while initially acquiring language, but came to it after another language was established.
Limited English Proficient. An adjectival phrase used to refer to the same students as ELL refers to. LEP is falling into disuse as it focuses attention on student deficiency rather than on the positive attribute of learning. Is being replaced by ELL.
Second Language. Refers to any language gained subsequent to the first or native language. It is acquired or learned secondarily to the native language. Doesn't refer to the ordinal numbering of languages, only to the relationship of a particular language to a persons native language.
First Language. Refers to the language that an individual encounters as an infant and young child; a persons native language.
English for Specific Purposes. Refers to the goal of learning English to use it for highly focused activity, such as for business or for aviation communication.
English as a Second Language Program. refers to a school program that is purposefully structured to provide instruction on the English language to NNSEs. An ESL program does not typically include instruction in any other subjects than English. An ESL program may be a component of a larger ELL program at a school.
English as a Second Language. Refers to the subject matter of the English language and the methodology for teaching the English language to non-native speakers. ESL makes no reference to the subjects other than English, but it is not methodology alone either, it refers to teaching the English language as content area. Typically, ESL refers to the study of English in a country where it is used for at least one daily task, such as instruction, interpersonal relations, or shopping.
English Langauge Learner Program. Refers to a school program that is purposly structured to provide instruction on the English language and instruction in other content areas to English Language Learners.
English Language Learner. Refers to students who are in the process of learning English, whether they are in ESL classes exclusively or a combination of ESL classes and other subject area classes.
English as a Foreign Langauge. Refers to the study of English as an intellectual, academic pursuit, not a a language whose use is necessary or desirable for daily life, although it may be used as a research tool. Typically, EFL is the study of English in a country where English is not a language of instruction or daily interactions, such as in Italy or in Saudi Arabia.
English for Academic Purposes. Refers to the goal of learning English to use it as the language of instruction for other subject areas.
Refers to a school program that is purposely structured so that students will use two languages on a daily basis.
Refers to the use of two languages in any capacity on a daily basis. A bilingual person uses two languages on a daily basis--for work and at home, perhaps, or for different subjects at school. Can also refer to the ability to use two languages, even if not used daily.