Nonnative speakers will exhibit errors of grammaticality more than errors of standardness.
Native speakers will exhibit errors of standardness more than errors of grammaticality.
Since NNS exhibit errors of grammaticality, it means that both types
of grammatical language, both standard and nonstandard, need to be taught.
While standard language is necessary for academic work, nonstandard language is necessary for:
interpersonal communication
accessing entertainment
reading novels
The grammaticality/standardness distinction explains why some ESL teachers
say “The problem with native speakers is that they write the way
they speak, and the problem with nonnative speakers is that they don’t
write the way they speak.” Native speakers of English tend to write with informal language instead of using more formal structures and vocabulary, and non-native speakers try to use formal English that they don't know yet.
Because NNS errors will be errors of grammaticality, the errors will
always be more noticeable than errors by NSs. Teachers may grade their
work lower as a result, or be at a loss as to how to deal with it. There are some strategies to bring fairness into the grading scheme, though.
Consider grading content over expression or to separate the two in the
grading rubric in order to be more equitable.
Recognize the difference between errors of grammaticality and errors of
pronunciation: different origins require different approaches to teaching.
Dictation exercises are one way to diagnose an error’s origin as
pronunciation or grammaticality.
Activity: The Lexicon
Since NNSEs have trouble with grammaticality, teachers need to know how to identify and explain why a sentence may be ungrammatical.
Read the sentences below and mark whether they are grammatical or not.
1. Has the nurse slept the baby yet?
Ungrammatical
Grammatical
2. Has the nurse fed the baby yet?
Ungrammatical
Grammatical
Sentence 1 is ungrammatical, and sentence 2 is grammatical. The difference in the grammaticality of these sentences is an issue
of word choice. The verb sleep is intransitive and
the verb feed is transitive.
An intransitive verb does not take a direct object.
A transitive verb takes a direct object.
Now try the following sentences. Again, mark if the sentence is grammatical or ungrammatical.
1. Her mother made her go.
Ungrammatical
Grammatical
2. Her mother forced her go.
Ungrammatical
Grammatical
Sentence 1 is grammatical, and sentence 2 is ungrammatical. Again the grammaticality seems to be connected to word choice, doesn’t it? This means that certain rules seem to be attached to certain words. But this example shows it isn’t the meaning of the words that matters; it’s the grammar of the word.
The concern with the rules that are attached
to certain words means we are still working at a word level. That is, we
are concerned with the lexicon of English.
Lexicon means mental dictionary.
The lexicon of English refers to the words that a native speaker knows
and what he/she knows about the words. The lexicon is important for
grammaticality.
We’ve already learned that words belong to syntactic categories
(parts of speech.)
Now we can add to that by noting that each syntactic category has subcategories.
Click on chart for larger image. Click on larger chart to go back.
Students must be taught the subcategories of syntactic categories as
well as the basic knowledge of what a verb, noun, preposition, etc. is. Particularly tricky can be things like count v. noncount nouns or auxiliary
v. main verbs.
Another tricky feature is that meaning can’t always be counted on
to help figure out the rules, as we have already seen in the earlier example:
Her mother made her go.
Her mother forced her to go.
The rules that are attached to words are not the only thing that creates
grammatical sentences.
Activity: The Lexicon 2
Mark the grammaticality of the two sentences below:
Jane bought a blue necklace.
Ungrammatical
Grammatical
Jane bought a necklace blue.
Ungrammatical
Grammatical
Grammaticality isn't just an issue of word choice. Word order is an issue,
too. It matters how the words are put next to each other. In other languages
the order may be different.
For instance, in Spanish, the adjective comes
after the noun, not before. So the confusion to a nonnative speaker becomes apparent. In order to
teach English to the nonnative speakers or to equitably grade work in
other subjects, the teacher must have a conscious awareness of the rules
that the student may simply not yet understand.
American Sign Language The sign language used by the deaf community in the United States.
Test of English for International Communication. A standardized exam for Educational Testing Services that is intended to determine the general capability of an NNSE to use English to conduct business. It is used by some businesses, predominantly in Asia, in hiring.
Test of English as a Foreign Language. A standardized exam from Educational Testing Services that is intended to determine the general capability of an NNSE to use English as the language of insruction .It is used as an admissions requirement by most US universities and colleges for international students.
Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages. A term that encompasses both TEFL and TESL. It is the name of the professional organization to which many teachers belong. TESOL the organization has many regional affiliates both in the US and abroad.
Teaching English as Second Language. Refers to the activity of teaching the English language as a tool necessary for some daily task like instruction, shopping, or interpersonal interactions.
Teaching English as a Foreign Language. Refers to the activity of teaching the English language as an intellectual, academic pursuit to non-native speakers of English.
Native Speaker of English. Refers to a person who acquired English in infancy and young childhood as a first language.
Native Speaker. Refers to a person whose relationship to a language is that it was encountered in infancy and young childhood as the dominant language of the environment.
Non-Native Speaker of English. Refers to a person who didn't acquire English as a first language, but came to it after another language was established.
Non-Native Speaker. Refers to a person whose relationship to a particular language is that he/she didn't encounter it while initially acquiring language, but came to it after another language was established.
Limited English Proficient. An adjectival phrase used to refer to the same students as ELL refers to. LEP is falling into disuse as it focuses attention on student deficiency rather than on the positive attribute of learning. Is being replaced by ELL.
Second Language. Refers to any language gained subsequent to the first or native language. It is acquired or learned secondarily to the native language. Doesn't refer to the ordinal numbering of languages, only to the relationship of a particular language to a persons native language.
First Language. Refers to the language that an individual encounters as an infant and young child; a persons native language.
English for Specific Purposes. Refers to the goal of learning English to use it for highly focused activity, such as for business or for aviation communication.
English as a Second Language Program. refers to a school program that is purposefully structured to provide instruction on the English language to NNSEs. An ESL program does not typically include instruction in any other subjects than English. An ESL program may be a component of a larger ELL program at a school.
English as a Second Language. Refers to the subject matter of the English language and the methodology for teaching the English language to non-native speakers. ESL makes no reference to the subjects other than English, but it is not methodology alone either, it refers to teaching the English language as content area. Typically, ESL refers to the study of English in a country where it is used for at least one daily task, such as instruction, interpersonal relations, or shopping.
English Langauge Learner Program. Refers to a school program that is purposly structured to provide instruction on the English language and instruction in other content areas to English Language Learners.
English Language Learner. Refers to students who are in the process of learning English, whether they are in ESL classes exclusively or a combination of ESL classes and other subject area classes.
English as a Foreign Langauge. Refers to the study of English as an intellectual, academic pursuit, not a a language whose use is necessary or desirable for daily life, although it may be used as a research tool. Typically, EFL is the study of English in a country where English is not a language of instruction or daily interactions, such as in Italy or in Saudi Arabia.
English for Academic Purposes. Refers to the goal of learning English to use it as the language of instruction for other subject areas.
Refers to a school program that is purposely structured so that students will use two languages on a daily basis.
Refers to the use of two languages in any capacity on a daily basis. A bilingual person uses two languages on a daily basis--for work and at home, perhaps, or for different subjects at school. Can also refer to the ability to use two languages, even if not used daily.
