E.  Problems for schema theory

Both memory distortions and correct recall have been attributed to the schema.  

Schemas are so flexible that they can account for almost any data.

III. Eyewitness Memory    
Penny memory

A. Misinformation effect
In general--People first view an event and afterward are given misleading information about the event. Later, they incorrectly recall the misleading information, rather than the event they actually saw (Zaragoza et al, 1997). 

Resembles retroactive interference.

 Loftus & Palmer (1974)—Preliminary study showed that the way a question is asked influences subsequent recall. 

“How fast were the cars going when they _____ each other?”

 Different verb intensity—smashed, collided, bumped, hit, contacted 

Intensity of verb influenced Ss estimate of speed

 Loftus, Miller, and Burns (1978)-- the classic experiment on the misinformation effect.

 Ss saw a series of slides. A sports car stopped at an intersection, and then it turned and hit a pedestrian.  Half saw yield sign at the intersection; the other half saw stop sign. 

Critical question contained information that was either consistent with a detail in the original slide series, inconsistent with that detail, or neutral (i.e., did not mention the detail).  

Ss were then shown two slides (stop sign or yield sign) and asked to select which they had previously seen. 

People who saw the inconsistent information were much less accurate than people in the other two conditions. 

Explanations:  

(1) Source Monitoring 

(2) Memory is active and constructive-- we construct a memory by combining/blending information from a variety of sources. 

(3) Consistency bias

Application: A confident eyewitness may not necessarily be an accurate eyewitness.

  video

B. Factors affecting accuracy of eyewitness testimony     take an eyewitness test 

Errors are More Likely If: 

(1) The witness’s attention has been distracted at the time of the event. 

(2) The misinformation is plausible. 

(3) There is social pressure to provide a specific answer.

(4) Eyewitness has been given positive feedback.

 (5) The response is based on process of comparison or elimination, rather than just "knowing"

 (6) Simultaneous line-up procedure (encourages relative judgments)

    What's the alternative?

IV.  Recovered Memory vs. False Memory Controversy  

A. Recovered memory perspective 

Memories can be forgotten and then recovered, e.g., sexual abuse during childhood    

B. False memory perspective 

 These researchers deny the accuracy of many reports about sudden recovery of early memories.

 Propose that many of these recovered memories are actually incorrect memories--constructed stories about events that never occurred.    

C. Laboratory research
Try this activity

 Researchers have demonstrated that people can create a false memory for a word they have not actually seen.   

Ss are asked to remember a list of words they had seen earlier. Accuracy is then measured.

 Roediger and McDermott (1995) found a false recall rate of 55%.

 People may “recall” events that are related to their actual experiences, but these events never really occurred.

 Ss can construct false memories for events in their own lives that never actually happened.

  Hyman and colleagues (1995) asked parents of Ss to supply information about several events.

 Interviewed each student individually about several events that really did occur.  Also, during the interview, researchers also planted several false memories.

 Some students gradually began to create a false memory (25% of Ss overall).    

D. Low ecological validity with respect to memory for childhood sexual abuse.

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