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English Structures
Language and the Brain
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Methods of Studying the Brain
How is it that scientists know what parts of the brain are responsible for which functions? There are many ways to study the brain; some are hundreds of years old, and some have only recently become available with the development of new technologies. This page reviews a few of the prominent methods that have been developed.
Autopsy Studies
- Records of disabilities/disorders are noted while an individual is alive, and the brain is examined after death.
- In autosy studies, only structural problems are visible.
Computerized Axial Tomography: CT scans
- A narrow beam of x-rays creates brain images.
- CT scans only allow a static image to be created.
- Can be done while individual is alive.
- Painless, although there is some exposure to radio activity.
Positron Emission Tomography: PET scans
- Positron-emitting isotopes combined with glucose are injected into blood
- The rate at which the glucose is used by various areas of brain is recorded while the individual is engaged in cognitive tasks.
- This produces a moving image of brain activity while the individual is alive.
- Again, there is some radioactive exposure
Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging: fMRI scans
- High field permanent magnets are used to create an image of the brain
- Many images can be taken at one testing and a "moving"image can be created.
- Safer than PET scan (no radioactive isotopes)
Case Studies of Individuals with Brain Lesions/Abnormalities/Injury
- Hemiplegic Children – children with lesions on one side or the other of their brains that cause damage to that hemisphere
- Hemidecorticates – children with one or the other hemisphere of their brains removed
- Split-brain patients – individuals with a surgically cut corpus callosum
- Aphasics – victims of brain damage, usually due to strokes or some accident
Dichotic Listening Experiments
- Tests that present different information to the different ears at the same time.
Activity: Try a Dichotic Listening Test
You can try a dichotic listening test at the UCLA Dichotic Listening Experiment site. You will need to use a stereo headset with your computer to take the test.
Continue to Part 5
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American Sign Language The sign language used by the deaf community in the United States.
Test of English for International Communication. A standardized exam for Educational Testing Services that is intended to determine the general capability of an NNSE to use English to conduct business. It is used by some businesses, predominantly in Asia, in hiring.
Test of English as a Foreign Language. A standardized exam from Educational Testing Services that is intended to determine the general capability of an NNSE to use English as the language of insruction .It is used as an admissions requirement by most US universities and colleges for international students.
Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages. A term that encompasses both TEFL and TESL. It is the name of the professional organization to which many teachers belong. TESOL the organization has many regional affiliates both in the US and abroad.
Teaching English as Second Language. Refers to the activity of teaching the English language as a tool necessary for some daily task like instruction, shopping, or interpersonal interactions.
Teaching English as a Foreign Language. Refers to the activity of teaching the English language as an intellectual, academic pursuit to non-native speakers of English.
Native Speaker of English. Refers to a person who acquired English in infancy and young childhood as a first language.
Native Speaker. Refers to a person whose relationship to a language is that it was encountered in infancy and young childhood as the dominant language of the environment.
Non-Native Speaker of English. Refers to a person who didn't acquire English as a first language, but came to it after another language was established.
Non-Native Speaker. Refers to a person whose relationship to a particular language is that he/she didn't encounter it while initially acquiring language, but came to it after another language was established.
Limited English Proficient. An adjectival phrase used to refer to the same students as ELL refers to. LEP is falling into disuse as it focuses attention on student deficiency rather than on the positive attribute of learning. Is being replaced by ELL.
Second Language. Refers to any language gained subsequent to the first or native language. It is acquired or learned secondarily to the native language. Doesn't refer to the ordinal numbering of languages, only to the relationship of a particular language to a persons native language.
First Language. Refers to the language that an individual encounters as an infant and young child; a persons native language.
English for Specific Purposes. Refers to the goal of learning English to use it for highly focused activity, such as for business or for aviation communication.
English as a Second Language Program. refers to a school program that is purposefully structured to provide instruction on the English language to NNSEs. An ESL program does not typically include instruction in any other subjects than English. An ESL program may be a component of a larger ELL program at a school.
English as a Second Language. Refers to the subject matter of the English language and the methodology for teaching the English language to non-native speakers. ESL makes no reference to the subjects other than English, but it is not methodology alone either, it refers to teaching the English language as content area. Typically, ESL refers to the study of English in a country where it is used for at least one daily task, such as instruction, interpersonal relations, or shopping.
English Langauge Learner Program. Refers to a school program that is purposly structured to provide instruction on the English language and instruction in other content areas to English Language Learners.
English Language Learner. Refers to students who are in the process of learning English, whether they are in ESL classes exclusively or a combination of ESL classes and other subject area classes.
English as a Foreign Langauge. Refers to the study of English as an intellectual, academic pursuit, not a a language whose use is necessary or desirable for daily life, although it may be used as a research tool. Typically, EFL is the study of English in a country where English is not a language of instruction or daily interactions, such as in Italy or in Saudi Arabia.
English for Academic Purposes. Refers to the goal of learning English to use it as the language of instruction for other subject areas.
Refers to a school program that is purposely structured so that students will use two languages on a daily basis.
Refers to the use of two languages in any capacity on a daily basis. A bilingual person uses two languages on a daily basis--for work and at home, perhaps, or for different subjects at school. Can also refer to the ability to use two languages, even if not used daily.