Sample 1 is an example of African American Vernacular English, sometimes called Ebonics. Sample 2 is an example of Standard American English.
They are the same in that both are spoken in North America, and native speakers of each generally understand each other when speaking to each other in their own language.
They are different in that while native speakers can understand each other, they do not follow exactly the same rules of pronunciation, sentence structure, or vocabulary choice.
Source of sample of AAVE: http://www.hawaii.edu/satocenter/langnet/definitions/aave.html
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Sample 1 is Norwegian and Sample 2 is Standard American English.
These samples use basically the same alphabetic writing system. The two writing systems aren't exactly the same, however. Native speakers of these two languages can't understand each other, nor can they read the writing of the other's language.
These are probably best described as two different languages.
Source of language samples: http://www.sofn.com/norwegian_culture/showlanguagelesson.jsp?Lesson=34
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Sample 1 is Norwegian and Sample 2 is Swedish.
These two samples use the same basic alphabetic writing system, but the two systems aren't exactly the same. Native speakers of these two languages can generally read something written in the other language.
Native speakers of the two languages live in different countries, but they can understand each other even if each speaks his own language to each other. That is, the two languages are mutually intelligible.
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Sample 1 is Spanish and Sample 2 is Italian.
The two languages use basically the same basic alphabetic writing system, but there are small differences bewteen the two. Native speakers of the languages can understand each other even if the other speaks in his own language. That is, the two languages are mutually intelligible.
Native speakers of the two languages live in different countries. Spanish speakers live in Spain, Central America, South America, and the Caribbean. Italian speakers live in Italy, Switzerland, and some islands in the Mediterranean.
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Sample 1 is Mandarin Chinese and Sample 2 is Cantonese Chinese.
Although a transliteration is used in these samples, both languages use the same logographic characters in their writing systems. Native speakers of one language can read the writing of the other language.
Native speakers of Mandarin are not able to understand
a native speaker of Cantonese when he speaks his own language, or vice versa. That is, Mandarin and Cantonese are not mutually intelligible.
Native speakers of both languages live in China. Cantonese speakers tend to live around Hong Kong and Mandarin speakers in other areas. Some Mandarin speakers also live in Taiwan.
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English Structures
Sociolinguistics
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Sociolinguistics
Review and Introduction
Over time, languages change; English has gone through three periods: Old English (also called Anglo-Saxon), Middle English, and Modern English. We are currently in the Modern English period. Historical linguistics is the study of language change over time.
A language can evolve so that it becomes different from earlier versions of that language, like Modern English is different from Middle English, and we identify different historical periods of one language.
Alternatively, a language can change so that it becomes radically different from another version of the same language--that is, a completely different language can develop from one language. This is essentially what happened when Old English changed to become Middle English. It is also what happened to turn Latin into Italian and Spanish.
A third way that languages change is for one group of people to change aspects of the language from ways that it is used by other speakers of the same language, not so much that it becomes a different language altogether, but rather so that there are different varieties of the same language. The study of the sociological factors that create different varieties of the same language as used by different groups of speakers of the same language is Sociolinguistics. We may say that sociolinguistics is the study of language in relation to social factors. |
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Activity: Same or Different Language?
When do we say, “this is a different language from that”?
How do we decide what’s a different language and what’s
not a different language?
Compare the two language samples side by side below, and decide if the two languages are the same or different. Pay attention to what you are using to make the decision.
The activity shows that distinguishing two languages from each other isn't as simple as one might think. Tied up in the issue are where the speakers live, what writing system they use, whether they can understand each's speech or not, and even whether they want to be associated with speakers of the other language.
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Dialect vs. Language |
When trying to decide whether two samples of human language represent the same or different languages, one must first decide on what the definition of a language is. So far we have used the following as our working definition of a language:
Language is a system of arbitrary symbols that humans use
to create meaningful communication with other users of the same language.
This definition suggests that we should use the "mutually
intelligible" test, whose rules might best be stated as:
- If speakers of two different varieties can not understand each
other, then they are speaking two different languages.
- If speakers of two different varieties can understand each
other, then they are speaking dialects of one language.
A dialect may be defined as a subtype or subcategory of a language rather than as a wholly different language. Although differences exist between the forms of the language as used by speakers of two dialects, the two speakers can still create meaningful comunication.
A language, then, may be defined as a form of human language so different from another form that the speakers of the two different forms can not create meaningful communication with each other.
However, if that is the definition, then why are Italian and Spanish considered different languages? Why are Norwegian and Swedish considered different languages? Why are Mandarin and Cantonese both called Chinese? The mutually intelligible test doesn't capture all that goes into our notiions of a language.
We allow issues such as whether the speakers of the languages live in the same political state, or whether they historically once lived in the same political state to affect our judgments. In short, we allow social factors, such as history and politics, to affect the definition, and do not only consider language factors.
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So does the addition of political factors mean that a language is the speech of a particular country? To answer that question, consider the following:
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After a brief study of nations and their languages, we see that our concept of a language doesn't line up with purely political issues, either. So our concept of a language isn't purely political or purely linguistic. If it were, we'd call everything that is mutually intelligible a dialct of a language, or we would call everything spoken within the borders of a political state by the same name. Instead, we find a confusing mix of the two.
How do we account for the confusion? Instead of thinking of countries and language forms, we might do better to discuss groups of people and their identities. While the terms language and dialect are useful, linguists have coined other terms to assist in analyzing the situation where so many issues overlap.
The following terms help us talk about language related to the kinds of groups people divide into.
- Language – a system of arbitrary symbols that humans use to create meaningful communication with other users of the same language.
- Dialects – systematic distinctions between groups produce dialects.
- Dialects may be spoken by identifiable subgroups of a larger speech
community.
- Speech community – a group
of people who share a set of social conventions regarding language use.
- Speech community is a general term for any type of group.
- Speech variety – general term
to describe distinctions in language that are unclear as to whether
they are accentual, dialectal, or language differences.
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American Sign Language The sign language used by the deaf community in the United States.
Test of English for International Communication. A standardized exam for Educational Testing Services that is intended to determine the general capability of an NNSE to use English to conduct business. It is used by some businesses, predominantly in Asia, in hiring.
Test of English as a Foreign Language. A standardized exam from Educational Testing Services that is intended to determine the general capability of an NNSE to use English as the language of insruction .It is used as an admissions requirement by most US universities and colleges for international students.
Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages. A term that encompasses both TEFL and TESL. It is the name of the professional organization to which many teachers belong. TESOL the organization has many regional affiliates both in the US and abroad.
Teaching English as Second Language. Refers to the activity of teaching the English language as a tool necessary for some daily task like instruction, shopping, or interpersonal interactions.
Teaching English as a Foreign Language. Refers to the activity of teaching the English language as an intellectual, academic pursuit to non-native speakers of English.
Native Speaker of English. Refers to a person who acquired English in infancy and young childhood as a first language.
Native Speaker. Refers to a person whose relationship to a language is that it was encountered in infancy and young childhood as the dominant language of the environment.
Non-Native Speaker of English. Refers to a person who didn't acquire English as a first language, but came to it after another language was established.
Non-Native Speaker. Refers to a person whose relationship to a particular language is that he/she didn't encounter it while initially acquiring language, but came to it after another language was established.
Limited English Proficient. An adjectival phrase used to refer to the same students as ELL refers to. LEP is falling into disuse as it focuses attention on student deficiency rather than on the positive attribute of learning. Is being replaced by ELL.
Second Language. Refers to any language gained subsequent to the first or native language. It is acquired or learned secondarily to the native language. Doesn't refer to the ordinal numbering of languages, only to the relationship of a particular language to a persons native language.
First Language. Refers to the language that an individual encounters as an infant and young child; a persons native language.
English for Specific Purposes. Refers to the goal of learning English to use it for highly focused activity, such as for business or for aviation communication.
English as a Second Language Program. refers to a school program that is purposefully structured to provide instruction on the English language to NNSEs. An ESL program does not typically include instruction in any other subjects than English. An ESL program may be a component of a larger ELL program at a school.
English as a Second Language. Refers to the subject matter of the English language and the methodology for teaching the English language to non-native speakers. ESL makes no reference to the subjects other than English, but it is not methodology alone either, it refers to teaching the English language as content area. Typically, ESL refers to the study of English in a country where it is used for at least one daily task, such as instruction, interpersonal relations, or shopping.
English Langauge Learner Program. Refers to a school program that is purposly structured to provide instruction on the English language and instruction in other content areas to English Language Learners.
English Language Learner. Refers to students who are in the process of learning English, whether they are in ESL classes exclusively or a combination of ESL classes and other subject area classes.
English as a Foreign Langauge. Refers to the study of English as an intellectual, academic pursuit, not a a language whose use is necessary or desirable for daily life, although it may be used as a research tool. Typically, EFL is the study of English in a country where English is not a language of instruction or daily interactions, such as in Italy or in Saudi Arabia.
English for Academic Purposes. Refers to the goal of learning English to use it as the language of instruction for other subject areas.
Refers to a school program that is purposely structured so that students will use two languages on a daily basis.
Refers to the use of two languages in any capacity on a daily basis. A bilingual person uses two languages on a daily basis--for work and at home, perhaps, or for different subjects at school. Can also refer to the ability to use two languages, even if not used daily.
